Cancer continues to be a formidable global health challenge, claiming nearly 10 million lives annually. Despite significant advancements in medical science, the disease’s prevalence and mortality rates are escalating. The World Health Organization (WHO) projects a staggering 77% increase in new cancer cases by 2050, reaching over 35 million worldwide.
In Kenya, the situation is equally alarming. The Ministry of Health reports that approximately 42,000 Kenyans are diagnosed with cancer each year, with projections indicating this number could rise to 58,000 annually by 2028. This surge is attributed to factors such as population growth, increased life expectancy, and lifestyle changes.
The Multifaceted Causes Behind Cancer’s Persistence
Cancer’s resilience as a leading cause of death stems from a complex interplay of factors:
1. Lifestyle and Environmental Factors
A significant proportion of cancer cases are linked to modifiable risk factors. The American Cancer Society highlights that nearly half of cancer deaths and 40% of cases in the U.S. are associated with preventable factors like tobacco use, poor diet, physical inactivity, and alcohol consumption. Globally, tobacco use alone accounts for approximately 25% of cancer deaths.
2. Aging Population
As life expectancy increases, so does the incidence of cancer. The risk of developing cancer escalates with age due to the accumulation of risk factors and the body’s diminishing ability to repair cellular damage. In 2022, three-quarters of new cancer cases occurred in individuals over 55.
3. Healthcare Disparities
Low- and middle-income countries bear a disproportionate burden of cancer mortality, often due to late-stage diagnosis and limited access to quality treatment. In Kenya, cancer is the third leading cause of death, following infectious and cardiovascular diseases. The lack of comprehensive cancer care services exacerbates the situation.
Nurses: The Unsung Heroes in Cancer Care
Nurses play a pivotal role in the cancer care continuum, from prevention and early detection to treatment and palliative care. Their contributions are multifaceted and indispensable.
1. Prevention and Health Education
Nurses are at the forefront of health education, promoting lifestyle changes that reduce cancer risk. They counsel patients on smoking cessation, balanced nutrition, regular physical activity, and the importance of vaccinations like HPV and Hepatitis B, which are linked to cancer prevention.
2. Early Detection and Screening
Through community outreach and patient education, nurses encourage participation in cancer screening programs. Early detection significantly improves treatment outcomes, and nurses are instrumental in facilitating access to these services.
3. Treatment and Symptom Management
Nurses administer treatments, monitor patient responses, and manage side effects. A recent review published in the British Journal of Sports Medicine emphasizes the role of exercise, guided by healthcare professionals, in mitigating treatment side effects and enhancing quality of life for cancer patients.
4. Emotional and Psychological Support
The emotional toll of cancer is profound. Nurses provide essential psychological support, helping patients and families navigate the complexities of the disease. Their empathetic presence can significantly impact patient well-being.
5. Palliative and End-of-Life Care
In advanced stages of cancer, nurses ensure patients receive compassionate palliative care, focusing on pain management and quality of life. They also support families during these challenging times.
Innovations and Success Stories in Nursing
Innovative nursing practices are making tangible differences in cancer care:
- Specialist Nursing Programs: In Australia, the implementation of specialist prostate cancer nurses led to a 60% reduction in emergency admissions, saving the healthcare system up to $20 million annually.
- Shared Care Models: Martina O’Neill, a nurse from the Sunshine Coast, developed a unique shared care model to support patients diagnosed via emergency presentations, addressing gaps in the healthcare system and improving patient outcomes.
The Path Forward: Empowering Nurses to Combat Cancer
To effectively combat cancer, it’s imperative to empower nurses through:
- Education and Training: Continuous professional development ensures nurses stay abreast of the latest advancements in cancer care.
- Policy Support: Healthcare policies should recognize and support the critical role of nurses in cancer prevention and treatment.
- Resource Allocation: Investing in nursing resources, including staffing and equipment, enhances the capacity to deliver comprehensive cancer care.
Conclusion
Cancer’s status as the world’s deadliest disease underscores the need for a multifaceted approach to prevention, early detection, and treatment. Nurses, with their unique position in the healthcare system, are integral to this fight. By empowering and supporting nursing professionals, we can make significant strides in reducing the global cancer burden.
Article Review
Cancer is a global economic calamity that has affected many sectors starting from social to economic issues. This review summarizes four scholarly nursing research studies. After the summary of the scholarly research studies, the essay presents an appraisal synopsis basing on the scholarly research studies which analyzes a population that has been discussed on the review. A conclusion and recommendation of the mechanisms that might be used to curb the challenge posed by cancer is also presented. Two of the scholarly references are from USA while the rest are from African countries. Moreover, among the references, two of them have been written by nurses and all of them have been published on peer reviewed journals. The essay is divided into two nursing research studies followed by their respective appraisal synopsis. The essay analyses and evaluates Cancer as a global health problem basing on the four research studies that have been presented.
Part A
Cancer is a disease brought by the abnormal cell growth with the chances to spread to other parts of the body. Possible signs observed to be cancer indication comprises of anew lump in the body, abnormal bleeding, and a prolonged cough among other symptoms. The disease involves dangerous infection that affects a greater part of the world. Currently, it is regarded as among the most deadly diseases. From various statistics carried out, deaths resulting from cancer infections exceed those of HIV/AIDS, malaria, and tuberculosis. In the USA, men are the most affected by the disease unlike in Africa where women are affected the most. Breast cancer is found to be the second to lung cancer as the type of cancer’s causing most deaths. The literature review asses four studies; two conducted within the United States while the other two have been carried out in African countries. A synopsis appraisal accompanies the literature review. The disease is critical for nursing because the basis of nursing is to bring quick recovery to their patients. Most of the cancer diseases are non-curable while the curable ones are very expensive to treat. It is the role of nurses and other healthcare providers to conduct researches that will help to decline cancer infections if not ending them.
Part B
Study #1; Nursing Research Study in the USA
US Cancer Statistics Working Group. (2023). United States Cancer Statistics: 1999–2010 Incidence and Mortality Web-based Report. Atlanta: US Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and National Cancer Institute.pp 68-102
Cancer has been considered to be among the top causes of death globally. According to US Cancer Statistics Working Group (2023) in the year 2025, there were 14 million new reported cases and 8.2 million cancer-related deaths were observed throughout the world. Cancer has a very severe effect on the United States society and the world as a whole. According to Statistics, an estimated 1,685,210 new infections of cancer are going to be diagnosed in the United States and around 595,690 people are going to die from the disease in 2016. Breast cancer is the most common type of cancer in the country. Other common types of cancers in the United States are lung and brochures, prostate cancer, rectum and colon cancer. Research has also shown that the number of new instances of cancer is 454.8 in 100,000 men and women annually. Cancer deaths have been realized to be more among men as compared to women. 207.9 in 100,000 men die out of cancer while 145.4 in 100,000 women die out of cancer. The disease affects African American men more than any other population. On the other hand, the cases are lowest in Asian/Pacific Islander women. In the year 2024, the numbers of people who live beyond cancer diagnosis are around 14.5 million, and as things go, the population is expected to rise to nearly 19 million in the year 2024 (US Cancer Statistics Working Group, 2023).
Appraisal Synopsis
Was the guideline reviewed by outside experts and a member of the public or field tested? Yes
Yes to peer review and the patient involvement.
Is the guideline current? Issued 2023Yes
Are all the recommendations credible? All
Clinical significance
Were the patient concerns, values, and risks addressed? Yes
The comprehensive state of issues regarded impressed everyone. The riskhas been taken into consideration in the discussion of evidence related to exercise.
Are the projected benefits of the guideline indicated? Yes
Reductions in symptoms
Is there adegree of confidence that each recommendation will result in the intended effect reported? Yes
Did the researchers address all the relevant decisions and actions the nurse would have addressed? Yes
All possible nonpharmaceutical modalities that we might use had been considered, although the recommendations about many were made basing on the evidence-based studies.
Are the recommendations clinically significant? All
Applicability
Does the guideline address a problem, weakness, or decision we are examining in our setting? Yes
Did the research evidence involve patients with similar to ours, and was the setting similar to ours?
We think many of our patients who decline medications of therapy would be open to structured exercise and/healthy lifestyle support that prevents cancer infections. It is our wish to find out how the patients infected with cancer feel about their life status.
What changes, additions, training or purchases would be needed to implement and sustain the implementation of a clinical protocol basis on this guideline?
State governments should take the responsibility of educating the citizens on the primary causes of cancer. Cancer treating equipmentneedsinstallation in hospitals in all regions in the country. Enough cancer specialtiesneed to be employed.
Do we have to educate the society and implement the guidelines that arerealistically achievable to us (resources, capability, and commitment)?Yes
Options for delivering exercise asa- primarytreatment options will undergo cost analysis. Healthy lifestyle support group require little additional cost beyond the initial consultation; investigate such an offering is reimbursable by insurance.
Which departments and providers will be affected by the change?
The health care staff and cancer affected patients are the ones who will be affected by the modification. The government also will have to incur extra charges during the implementation.
How will we know if patients will benefit from incorporating the guideline recommendations for the care we give?
We could set up a system to identify patients who have benefited from the newly installed cancer equipment and the new specialties in the sector.
Should we implement the guideline or even equivocal, and recommend to the Board of Directors that we move ahead with both the exercise recommendation and the healthy lifestyle best practice point? Yes
Study #2; Nursing Research Study Non-USA
Parkin, D. M., Bray, F., Ferlay, J., &Jemal, A. (2024). Cancer in Africa 2025. Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention, 23(6), 953-966.
Parkin et al. (2024) explained that mostly, cancer in Africa results from infectionssuch as hepatitis viruses (B and C). This particular disease causes liver cancer or the human papillomavirus (HPV). The disease causes around 98% of the cervical cancers infections. In Africa, cancer affects men more than women. Statistics show that 40% of African men are infected with cancer while 30% women get infected with this disease. A major challenge in Africa is that the disease is perceived to be very expensive to treat. Many African problems inclusive of illnesses relyon developed countries for help. In 2002, cervix cancer was noted as leading cancer in women in Sub-Saharan Africa. 70, 700 new instances occurred. Eastern and southern Africa experience nearly 30 to 60 percent which is a higher figure as compared to the sub-Saharan Africa, which suffers 20 to 35 percent. This percentageequates to 100,000 people. However, thereason for higher infections in Eastern and South Africa is not clear (Parkin et al. 2024).
Appraisal Synopsis
Was the guideline reviewed by outside experts and a member of the public or field tested? Yes
Yes to peer review and the patient involvement
Is the guideline current? Issued 2024 Yes
Are all the recommendations credible? All
Clinical significance
Were the patient concerns, values, and risks addressed? Yes
The comprehensive state of issues regarded impressed everyone. The riskwas considered in the discussion of evidence related to exercise.
Are the projected benefits of the guideline indicated? Yes
There was a significant decline in symptoms
Is the degree of confidence that each recommendation will result in the intended effect reported? Yes
Did all thenecessary decisions and actions the nurse would have addressed? Yes
We considered all the possible nonpharmaceutical modalities, although the recommendations about many were made basing on the evidence-based studies.
Are the recommendations clinically significant? All
Applicability
Does the guideline address a problem, weakness, or decision we are examining in our setting? Yes
Did the research evidence involve patients with similar to ours, and was the setting similar to ours?
We think that many of our patients who decline medications of therapy would be open to structured exercise and/healthy lifestyle support that prevents cancer infections in African countries. It is our wish to find out how the patients infected with cancer feel about their life status.Mechanisms of helping patients who do not afford cancer therapy are also underway.
What changes, additions, training or purchases would be needed to implement and sustain the implementation of a clinical protocol basis on this guideline?
State governments should take the responsibility of educating the citizens on the primary causes of cancer. Cancer treating equipmentneedsinstallation in hospitals in all regions in the country. Enough cancer specialties need to be employed. Since most of the countries in Africa are still developing, their leaders should seek help from developed countries to improve cancer status in their countries.
Do we have to educate the society and implement the guidelines that are realistically achievable to us (resources, capability, and commitment)?Yes
Options for delivering exercise as aprimarytreatment option will undergo cost analysis. Healthy lifestyle support group require little additional cost beyond the initial consultation; investigate such an offering is reimbursable by insurance.
Which departments and providers will be affected by the change?
The health care staff and cancer affected patients will be affected by the modification. The government will incur extra charges during the implementation. The community too should take part in this exercise.
How will we know if patients will benefit from incorporating the guideline recommendations for the care we give?
We could set up a system to identify patients who have benefited from the newly installed cancer equipment and the new specialties in the sector.Analysis of cancer growth can also be made to see if there is a drop.
Should we implement the guideline or even equivocal, we will recommend to the Board of Directors that we move ahead with both the exercise recommendation and the healthy lifestyle best practice point? Yes
Study #3; Nursing Research Study in the USA
Khurana, E., Fu, Y., Colonna, V., Mu, X. J., Kang, H. M., Lappalainen, T.,& Das, J. (2023).Integrative Annotation of Variants from 1092 Humans: Application to Cancer Genomics. Science, 342(6154), 1235587.
Khurana et al. (2023) describe cancer is a disaster that needs consideration as aneconomic calamity. The United States spent $125 billion in 2010. Researchers have shown that the amount might rise to $156 billion in the year 2020. Breast cancer isconsidered as the second leading newly found cancer. Also, breast cancer is the second leading cause of cancer death in United States women. On the other hand, colorectal cancer(CRC) is considered the third most commonly newly realized cancer. It has also been discovered that it is the third most common cause of cancer death among the people in the United States. There is sufferings and deaths ofcancer people as health practitioners find the cause of the disease. The systematic efforts to prevent cancer include reducing the use of tobacco and improving diet and physical activity. Other things that need consideration are expanding the use of developed screening tests. Regarding treatment, the number of people in U.S suffering from cancer is rising following the aging, growth of the population, and also improving survival rates (Khurana et al. 2023).
Appraisal Synopsis
Was the guideline reviewed by outside experts and a member of the public or field tested? Yes
Yes to peer review and the patient involvement
Is the guideline current? Issued 2023 Yes
Are all the recommendations credible? All
Clinical significance
Were the patient concerns, values, and risks addressed? Yes
The comprehensive state of issues regarded impressed everyone. The riskwas taken into consideration in the discussion of evidence related to exercise.
Are the projected benefits of the guideline indicated? Yes
Reductions in symptoms
Is the degree of confidence that each recommendation will result in the intended effect reported? Yes
Did allthe necessary decisions and actions the nurse would have addressed? Yes
We considered all the possible nonpharmaceutical modalities, although the recommendations about many were made basing on the evidence-based studies.
Are the recommendations clinically significant? Yes
Applicability
Does the guideline address a problem, weakness, or decision we are examining in our setting? Yes
Did the research evidence involve patients with similar to ours, and was the setting similar to ours?
We think many of our patients who decline medications of therapy would be open to structured exercise and/healthy lifestyle support that prevents cancer infections. It is our wish to find out how the patients infected with cancer feel about their life status.
What changes, additions, training or purchases would be needed to implement and sustain the implementation of a clinical protocol basis on this guideline?
State governments should take the responsibility of educating the citizens on the primary causes of cancer. Cancer treating equipmentneedsinstallation in hospitals in all regions in the country. Enough cancer specialties need to be employed.
Do we have to educate the society and implement the guidelines that are realistically achievable to us (resources, capability, and commitment)?Yes
Options for delivering exercise asa- primarytreatment options will undergo cost analysis. Healthy lifestyle support group require little additional cost beyond the initial consultation; investigate such an offering is reimbursable by insurance.
Which departments and providers will be affected by the change?
The health care staff and cancer affected patients are the ones who will be affected by the modification. The government also will have to incur extra charges during the implementation.
How will we know if patients benefit from our incorporating the guideline recommendations or some of them into the care we give?
We could set up a system to identify patients who have benefited from the newly installed cancer equipment and the new specialties in the sector.
Should we implement the guideline or even equivocal, we will recommend to the Board of Directors that we move ahead with both the exercise recommendation and the healthy lifestyle best practice point? Yes
Study #4; Nursing Research Study Non-USA
Sylla, B. S., & Wild, C. P. (2025).A million Africans a Year Dying from Cancer by 2030: What Can Cancer Research and Control Offer to The Continent? International Journal of Cancer, 130(2), 245-250.
According to Sylla& Wild (2025), cancer has become a burden in African countries that is hard to avoid. The majority of the countries in Africa are developing. According to various studies carried out, 70% of 16 million new reports of cancer will be from developing countries. Cancer has been noted o kill more people than HIV/AIDS and other dangerous diseases such as malaria and tuberculosis. Cancer has been a major problem basing on the fact that majority of the countries lack resources. Among the 53 Countries in Africa, only 21 countries have radiotherapy. Moreover, among all the other continents, Africa has the least numbers of oncologists. Also, Cancer literacy in Africa is very low as attributed to many African languageslacks a name for cancer (Sylla& Wild, 2025).
Appraisal Synopsis
Was the guideline reviewed by outside experts and a member of the public or field tested? Yes
Yes to peer review and the patient involvement
Is the guideline current? Issued 2025 Yes
Are all the recommendations credible? All
Clinical significance
Were the patient concerns, values, and risks addressed? Yes
The comprehensive state of issues regarded impressed everyone. The risk did take into consideration the discussion of evidence related to exercise.
Are the projected benefits of the guideline indicated? Yes
There was a significant decline in symptoms
Is the degree of confidence that each recommendation will result in the intended effect reported? Yes
Did all necessary decisions and actions the nurse would have addressed? Yes
We considered all the possible nonpharmaceutical modalities, although the recommendations about many were made basing on the evidence-based studies.
Are the recommendations clinically significant? All
Applicability
Does the guideline address a problem, weakness, or decision we are examining in our setting? Yes
Did the research evidence involve patients with similar to ours, and was the setting similar to ours?
We think many of our patients who decline medications of therapy would be open to structured exercise and/healthy lifestyle support that prevents cancer infections in African countries. It is our wish to find out how the patients infected with cancer feel about their life status. Mechanisms of helping patients who do not afford cancer therapy are also underway.
What changes, additions, training or purchases would be needed to implement and sustain the implementation of a clinical protocol basis on this guideline?
State governments should take the responsibility of educating the citizens on the primary causes of cancer. Cancer treating equipmentneedsinstallation in hospitals in all regions in the country. Enough cancer specialties need to be employed. Since most of the countries in Africa are still developing, their leaders should seek help from developed countries to improve cancer states in their countries.
Do we have to educate the society and implement the guidelines that are realistically achievable to us (resources, capability, and commitment)?Yes
Options for delivering exercise asa- primarytreatment options will undergo cost analysis. Healthy lifestyle support group require little additional cost beyond the initial consultation; investigate such an offering is reimbursable by insurance.
Which departments and providers will be affected by the change?
The health care staff and cancer affected patients are the ones who will be affected by the modification. The government also will have to incur extra charges during the implementation. The community too should take part in this exercise.
How will we know if patients will benefit from incorporating the guideline recommendations for the care we give?
We could set up a system to identify patients who have benefited from the newly installed cancer equipment and the new specialties in the sector.Analysis of cancer growth can also be made to see if there is a drop.
Should we implement the guideline or even equivocal, we will recommend to the Board of Directors that we move ahead with both the exercise recommendation and the healthy lifestyle best practice point? Yes
Part C
Conclusion
The abnormal growth of cells termed as cancer as proved by the nursing research studies is an adverse condition that calls for attention. Cancer as a problem affects both the developed developing and the under developed countries. It is time for the community and the company to collaborate in coming up with means of ending these problems. From the four studies, it is clear that cancer is the most deadly disease in the whole world even more than malaria and HIV/AIDS. The appraisal synopsis proves that the nursing research studies used in this analysis have been approved and are the right materials for this study.
References
US Cancer Statistics Working Group. (2023). United States Cancer Statistics: 1999–2010 Incidence and Mortality Web-based Report. Atlanta: US Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and National Cancer Institute.
Khurana, E., Fu, Y., Colonna, V., Mu, X. J., Kang, H. M., Lappalainen, T.,& Das, J. (2023).Integrative Annotation of Variants from 1092 Humans: Application to Cancer Genomics. Science, 342(6154), 1235587.
Parkin, D. M., Bray, F., Ferlay, J., &Jemal, A. (2024). Cancer in Africa 2025. Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention, 23(6), 953-966.
Sylla, B. S., & Wild, C. P. (2025).A million Africans a Year Dying from Cancer by 2030: What Can Cancer Research and Control Offer to The Continent? International Journal of Cancer, 130(2), 245-250.
